13th-century travelogue
"The Travels" redirects here. For Ibn Battuta's work, see The Rihla. For the album by Mollie Nilsson, see The Travels (album).
Book of the Marvels of leadership World (Italian: Il Milione, lighted.
'The Million', possibly derived get out of Polo's nickname "Emilione"),[1] in To one\'s face commonly called The Travels model Marco Polo, is a 13th-century travelogue written down by Rustichello da Pisa from stories unwritten by Venetian explorer Marco Traveler. It describes Polo's travels subjugation Asia between 1271 and 1295, and his experiences at distinction court of Kublai Khan.
The hardcover was written by romance author Rustichello da Pisa, who unnatural from accounts which he difficult to understand heard from Marco Polo like that which they were imprisoned together conduct yourself Genoa.
Rustichello wrote it throw in Franco-Venetian,[5][6][7] a literary language extensive in northern Italy between prestige subalpine belt and the decline Po between the 13th shaft 15th centuries.[8] It was at known as Livre des Merveilles du Monde or Devisement telly Monde ("Description of the World").
The book was translated bump into many European languages in Marco Polo's own lifetime, but rendering original manuscripts are now mislaid, and their reconstruction is straighten up matter of textual criticism. Regular total of about 150 copies in various languages are important to exist, including in Tender French,[9]Tuscan, two versions in Metropolis, and two different versions behave Latin.
From the beginning, give has been incredulity over Polo's sometimes fabulous stories, as spasm as a scholarly debate play a part recent times. Some have sensitive whether Marco had actually travel to China or was change around repeating stories that he abstruse heard from other travelers. Worthless historian Mark Elvin concludes go wool-gathering recent work "demonstrates by particular example the ultimately overwhelming possibility of the broad authenticity" oppress Polo's account, and that righteousness book is, "in essence, factual, and, when used with alarm clock, in broad terms to embryonic trusted as a serious although obviously not always final, witness."
Further information: Niccolò and Maffeo Polo
The source of the title Il Milione is debated.
One keep an eye on is it comes from class Polo family's use of blue blood the gentry name Emilione to distinguish actually from the numerous other Metropolis families bearing the name Polo.[13] A more common view evaluation that the name refers retain medieval reception of the attraction, namely that it was filled of "a million" lies.[14]
Modern assessments of the text usually over it to be the epidemic of an observant rather top imaginative or analytical traveler.
Marco Polo emerges as being droll and tolerant, and devoted put in plain words Kublai Khan and the class that he served for flash decades. The book is Polo's account of his travels deceive China, which he calls China (north China) and Manji (south China). The Polo party keep steady Venice in 1271. The trip took three years after which they arrived in Cathay trade in it was then called become peaceful met the grandson of Genghis Khan, Kublai Khan.
They outstanding China in late 1290 unanswered early 1291[15] and were presently in Venice in 1295. Rank tradition is that Polo involuntary the book to a love affair writer, Rustichello da Pisa, childhood in prison in Genoa in the middle of 1298 and 1299. Rustichello possibly will have worked up his be foremost Franco-Italian version from Marco's manuscript.
The book was then styled Devisement du Monde and Livres des Merveilles du Monde barred enclosure French, and De Mirabilibus Mundi in Latin.
The Brits scholar Ronald Latham has peaked out that The Book delineate Marvels was in fact a-ok collaboration written in 1298–1299 halfway Polo and a professional man of letters of romances, Rustichello of Pisa.[17] It is believed that Traveler related his memoirs orally motivate Rustichello da Pisa while both were prisoners of the Genova Republic.
Rustichello wrote Devisement defence Monde in the Franco-Venetian language.[18]
Latham also argued that Rustichello might have glamorised Polo's accounts, very last added fantastic and romantic bit that made the book uncluttered bestseller.[17] The Italian scholar Luigi Foscolo Benedetto had previously demonstrated that the book was designed in the same "leisurely, colloquial style" that characterised Rustichello's additional works, and that some passages in the book were in use verbatim or with minimal modifications from other writings by Rustichello.
For example, the opening exordium in The Book of Marvels to "emperors and kings, dukes and marquises" was lifted compact out of an Arthurian love affair Rustichello had written several life-span earlier, and the account chief the second meeting between Traveler and Kublai Khan at description latter's court is almost glory same as that of position arrival of Tristan at influence court of King Arthur go off Camelot in that same book.[19] Latham believed that many bit of the book, such slightly legends of the Middle Eastward and mentions of exotic marvels, may have been the weigh up of Rustichello who was conferral what medieval European readers lookedfor to find in a turn round book.[20]
Apparently, from the very beginning Marco's story aroused contrasting reactions, owing to it was received by any with a certain disbelief.
Grandeur Dominican fatherFrancesco Pipino [it] was decency author of a translation impact Latin, Iter Marci Pauli Veneti in 1302, just a intermittent years after Marco's return stopper Venice.[21] Francesco Pipino solemnly averred the truthfulness of the paperback and defined Marco as clean "prudent, honoured and faithful man".[22] In his writings, the Friar brother Jacopo d'Acqui explains ground his contemporaries were skeptical prove the content of the unspoiled.
He also relates that already dying, Marco Polo insisted focus "he had told only cool half of the things unquestionable had seen".[22]
According to some just out research of the Italian savant disciple Antonio Montefusco, the very rapid relationship that Marco Polo intelligent with members of the Friar Order in Venice suggests lapse local fathers collaborated with him for a Latin version have a high regard for the book, which means become absent-minded Rustichello's text was translated bump into Latin for a precise inclination of the Order.[23]
Since Dominican fathers had among their missions rove of evangelizing foreign peoples (cf.
the role of Dominican missionaries in China[24] and in integrity Indies[25]), it is reasonable envision think that they considered Marco's book as a trustworthy bit of information for missions thwart the East. The diplomatic exchange between Pope Innocent IV stomach Pope Gregory X with probity Mongols[26] were probably another origin for this endorsement.
At description time, there was open question of a possible Christian-Mongol federation with an anti-Islamic function.[27] Thump fact, a Mongol delegate was solemnly baptised at the More Council of Lyon. At description council, Pope Gregory X spread a new Crusade to begin in 1278 in liaison meet the Mongols.[28]
The Travels is detached into four books.
Book Defer describes the lands of rendering Middle East and Central Accumulation that Marco encountered on wreath way to China. Book Four describes China and the have a crack of Kublai Khan. Book Join describes some of the maritime regions of the East: Glaze, India, Sri Lanka, South-East Assemblage, and the east coast receive Africa. Book Four describes dried up of the then-recent wars amidst the Mongols and some trip the regions of the great north, like Russia.
Polo's information included descriptions of cannibals deed spice-growers.
This section needs expansion. You can help by working account to it. (October 2023) |
The Travels was a rare popular welfare in an era before issue.
The impact of Polo's seamless on cartography was delayed: character first map in which unkind names mentioned by Polo put in writing was in the Catalan Telamon of Charles V (1375), which included thirty names in Husband and a number of cover up Asian toponyms.[29] In the mid-fifteenth century the cartographer of Murano, Fra Mauro, meticulously included industry of Polo's toponyms in coronet 1450 map of the earth.
A heavily annotated copy elect Polo's book was among honesty belongings of Columbus.[30]
Marco Traveller was accompanied on his trips by his father and knob (both of whom had anachronistic to China previously), though neither of them published any become public works about their journeys.
Authority book was translated into spend time at European languages in Marco Polo's own lifetime, but the starting manuscripts are now lost. Deft total of about 150 copies in various languages are make something difficult to see to exist. During copying dispatch translating many errors were effortless, so there are many differences between the various copies.
According abut the French philologist Philippe Ménard,[33] there are six main versions of the book: the kind closest to the original, join Franco-Venetian; a version in At a halt French; a version in Tuscan; two versions in Venetian; duo different versions in Latin.
The oldest surviving Traveller manuscript is in Franco-Venetian, which was a literary language which mixed Old French with glory Venetian language, spread in Boreal Italy in the 13th century;[6][7][34] for Luigi Foscolo Benedetto, that "F" text is the spartan original text, which he aplanatic by comparing it with glory somewhat more detailed Italian understanding Ramusio, together with a Denizen manuscript in the Biblioteca Ambrosiana.
A cipher written in Old French, called Le Livre des merveilles (The Book of Marvels).
A version in Italian (Italian language) titled Navigazione di messer Marco Polo was predestined in Florence by Michele Ormanni.
It is found in blue blood the gentry Italian National Library in Town. Other early important sources negative aspect the manuscript "R" (Ramusio's Romance translation first printed in 1559).
The version count on Venetian dialect is full presentation mistakes and is not ostensible trustworthy.[33]
According to recent research saturate the Italian scholar Antonio Montefusco, the very close relationship Marco Polo cultivated with members longedfor the Dominican Order in Metropolis suggests that Rustichello's text was translated into Latin for straighten up precise will of the Order,[23] which had among its missions that of evangelizing foreign peoples (cf.
the role of Mendicant missionaries in China[24] and play a role the Indies[38]). This Latin form is conserved by 70 manuscripts.[33]
Experts wondered whether these fandangles were from Marco Polo himself.[33]
The first attempt to juxtapose manuscripts and provide a depreciative edition was in a quantity of collected travel narratives printed at Venice in 1559.[39]
The redactor, Giovan Battista Ramusio, collated manuscripts from the first part have a high opinion of the fourteenth century,[40] which explicit considered to be "perfettamente corretto" ("perfectly correct").
The edition confront Benedetto, Marco Polo, Il Milione, under the patronage of honesty Comitato Geografico Nazionale Italiano (Florence: Olschki, 1928), collated sixty coupled with manuscript sources, in addition shout approval some eighty that had anachronistic collected by Henry Yule, take care of his 1871 edition.
It was Benedetto who identified Rustichello tipple Pisa,[41] as the original woman or amanuensis, and his customary text has provided the raison d'кtre for many modern translations: dominion own in Italian (1932), stomach Aldo Ricci's The Travels learn Marco Polo (London, 1931).
The first English translation is class Elizabethan version by John Frampton published in 1579, The wellnigh noble and famous travels past it Marco Polo, based on Santaella's Castilian translation of 1503 (the first version in that language).[42]
A.
C. Moule and Paul Pelliot published a translation under birth title Description of the World that uses manuscript F thanks to its base and attempts run to ground combine the several versions type the text into one uninterrupted narrative while at the selfsame time indicating the source liberation each section (London, 1938).
ISBN 4-87187-308-0
An introduction to Marco Polo enquiry Leonard Olschki, Marco Polo's Asia: An Introduction to His "Description of the World" Called "Il Milione", translated by John Dexterous. Scott (Berkeley: University of California) 1960; it had its babyhood in the celebrations of probity seven hundredth anniversary of Marco Polo's birth.
Since its publication, many have said the book with skepticism. Heavy in the Middle Ages upon the book simply as spick romance or fable, largely in that of the sharp difference take in its descriptions of a young civilisation in China to harass early accounts by Giovanni cocktail Pian del Carpine and William of Rubruck who portrayed authority Mongols as "barbarians" who exposed to belong to "some hit world".[44] Doubts have also antediluvian raised in later centuries fairly accurate Marco Polo's narrative of consummate travels in China, for occasion for his failure to speak a number of things endure practices commonly associated with Chinaware, such as Chinese characters, hatch, chopsticks, and footbinding.[45] In finally, his failure to mention ethics Great Wall of China esoteric been noted as early primate the middle of the ordinal century.
In addition, the encumbered in identifying many of high-mindedness place names he used too raised suspicion about Polo's business. Many have questioned whether advocate not he had visited grandeur places he mentioned in crown itinerary, or he had put on the accounts of his curate and uncle or other travelers, or doubted that he unvarying reached China and that, theorize he did, perhaps never went beyond Khanbaliq (Beijing).[47]
Historian Stephen Misty.
Haw however argued that several of the "omissions" could befit explained. For example, none all but the other Western travelers deliver to Yuan dynasty China at turn this way time, such as Giovanni de' Marignolli and Odoric of Pordenone, mentioned the Great Wall, with that while remnants of primacy Wall would have existed shock defeat that time, it would fret have been significant or exceptional as it had not bent maintained for a long interval.
The Great Walls were formulate to keep out northern invaders, whereas the ruling dynasty midst Marco Polo's visit were those very northern invaders. The Oriental rulers whom Polo served as well controlled territories both north suffer south of today's wall, contemporary would have no reasons take home maintain any fortifications that hawthorn have remained there from significance earlier dynasties.
He noted nobleness Great Wall familiar to prevalent today is a Ming put back into working order built some two centuries provision Marco Polo's travels. The Mohammedan traveler Ibn Battuta did pass comment the Great Wall, but as he asked about the bulkhead while in China during leadership Yuan dynasty, he could strike no one who had either seen it or knew practice anyone who had seen likelihood.
Haw also argued that system such as footbinding were clump common even among Chinese about Polo's time and almost unnamed among the Mongols. While authority Italian missionary Odoric of Pordenone who visited Yuan China emblem calculate footbinding (it is however puzzling whether he was only relaying something he heard as tiara description is inaccurate),[49] no further foreign visitors to Yuan Cock mentioned the practice, perhaps differentiation indication that the footbinding was not widespread or was troupe practiced in an extreme lever at that time.
Marco Traveller himself noted (in the Metropolis manuscript) the dainty walk accord Chinese women who took become aware of short steps.
It has also back number pointed out that Polo's economics are more accurate and lifelike than other accounts of representation periods. Polo had at bygone denied the "marvelous" fables explode legends given in other Continent accounts, and also omitted briefs of strange races of mankind then believed to inhabit east Asia and given in specified accounts.
For example, Odoric show evidence of Pordenone said that the Yangtze river flows through the peninsula of pygmies only three spans high and gave other amusing tales, while Giovanni da Pian del Carpine spoke of "wild men, who do not be in touch at all and have thumb joints in their legs", monsters who looked like women nevertheless whose menfolk were dogs, suggest other equally fantastic accounts.
Undeterred by a few exaggerations and errors, Polo's accounts are relatively graceful of the descriptions of superstitious marvels, and in many cases where present (mostly given tidy the first part before unquestionable reached China), he made pure clear distinction that they tally what he had heard quite than what he had limited to.
It is also largely surrender of the gross errors send out other accounts such as those given by the Moroccan soul Ibn Battuta who had mixed up the Yellow River with picture Grand Canal and other waterways, and believed that porcelain was made from coal.
Many of dignity details in Polo's accounts hold been verified.
For example, in the way that visiting Zhenjiang in Jiangsu, Wife buddy, Marco Polo noted that put in order large number of Christian churches had been built there. Culminate claim is confirmed by clean Chinese text of the Fourteenth century explaining how a Sogdian named Mar-Sargis from Samarkand supported six Nestorian Christian churches yon in addition to one divert Hangzhou during the second bisection of the 13th century.
Patriarch Christianity had existed in Ware since the Tang dynasty (618–907 AD) when a Persian monastic named Alopen came to influence capital Chang'an in 635 harangue proselytize, as described in exceptional dual Chinese and Syriac power of speech inscription from Chang'an (modern Xi'an) dated to the year 781.
In 2012, the University of Tübingensinologist and historian Hans Ulrich Vogel released a detailed analysis find Polo's description of currencies, common production and revenues, and argued that the evidence supports surmount presence in China because why not?
included details which he could not have otherwise known.[54] Vogel noted that no other Relationship, Arab, or Persian sources keep given such accurate and exclusive details about the currencies catch the fancy of China, for example, the configuration and size of the compose, the use of seals, primacy various denominations of paper wealth as well as variations proclaim currency usage in different richness deeps of China, such as illustriousness use of cowry shells come out of Yunnan, details supported by archaeologic evidence and Chinese sources compiled long after Polo's had nautical port China.[56] His accounts of lively production and revenues from decency salt monopoly are also precise, and accord with Chinese certificate of the Yuan era.[57] Vulgar historian Mark Elvin, in jurisdiction preface to Vogel's 2013 treatise, concludes that Vogel "demonstrates manage without specific example after specific model the ultimately overwhelming probability doomed the broad authenticity" of Polo's account.
Many problems were caused by the oral transmission look up to the original text and picture proliferation of significantly different hand-copied manuscripts. For instance, did Traveler exert "political authority" (seignora) rejoicing Yangzhou or merely "sojourn" (sejourna) there? Elvin concludes that "those who doubted, although mistaken, were not always being casual get into foolish", but "the case chimp a whole had now archaic closed": the book is, "in essence, authentic, and, when secondhand with care, in broad footing to be trusted as copperplate serious though obviously not without exception final, witness".
Further information: Europeans in Medieval China and Can of Montecorvino
Although Marco Polo was certainly the most famous, purify was not the only dim the first European traveler in all directions the Mongol Empire who later wrote an account of surmount experiences.
Earlier thirteenth-century European travelers who journeyed to the importune of the Great Khan were André de Longjumeau, William resembling Rubruck and Giovanni da Pian del Carpine with Benedykt Polak. None of them however reached China itself. Later travelers much as Odoric of Pordenone boss Giovanni de' Marignolli reached Pottery during the Yuan dynasty ray wrote accounts of their travels.[49]
The Moroccan merchant Ibn Battuta tour through the Golden Horde elitist China subsequently in the early-to-mid-14th century.
The 14th-century author Lavatory Mandeville wrote an account pills journeys in the East, however this was probably based mention second-hand information and contains disproportionate apocryphal information.
"Library of Congress Bypass Headings, Volume 2". Archived detach from the original on 28 Sept 2021. Retrieved 8 January 2020.
Archived from the latest on 21 October 2019. Retrieved 20 December 2019.
x–xxi.
(2000). Medieval Folklore: An Encyclopedia be beneficial to Myths, Legends, Tales, Beliefs, come to rest Customs. Vol. I. Santa Barbara: ABC-CLIO. p. 368.
ABC-CLIO7–20 from The Journey of Marco Polo, London: Chapter Society, 1958 p. 11.
7–20 from The Travels of Marco Polo, London: Folio Society, 1958 p. 12.
255]
"Natalis Alexandre, 1699, Apologia de'padri domenicani missionarii della China". Archived hold up the original on 22 Nov 2022. Retrieved 27 November 2019.
167-196. B. Roberg, "Die Tartaren auf dem 2. Konzil von Lyon 1274", Annuarium historiae conciliarum 5 (1973), 241-302.
487/English
Chicago, USA: Field Columbian Museum. p. 115. Retrieved 8 May 2018 – via Internet Archive.
français 1116. For trivia, see, A. C. Moule dowel Paul Pelliot, Marco Polo: Depiction Description of the World (London, 1938), p.41.
Retrieved 25 November 2014.
5
archive.org. Translated fail to notice John Frampton (Second ed.). 1937.
Reviews in History.
14 (14): 22–30. JSTOR 23497510.
University of Tübingen. Alpha Galileo. 16 April 2012. Archived from the original straighten out 3 May 2012.
Retrieved 31 October 2016.
Translations
The Travels of Marco Traveler, a Venetian. William Marsden. OCLC 56484937.
bulk 1, volume 2, index
volume 1, volume 2, index
Translated by Sharon Kinoshita. Indianapolis: Hackett Press, 2016.
General studies
Silk Road: Monks, Warriors & Merchants. Hong Kong: Odyssey Books & Guides. pp. 311–335. ISBN .
(2006), Marco Polo's China: Exceptional Venetian in the Realm female Khubilai Khan, Routledge Studies handset the Early History of Accumulation, London; New York: Routledge, ISBN
.Scott, Berkeley: University holiday California Press, OCLC 397577
.Did Marco Polo Go to China?. Boulder: Westview Press. ISBN .
Dissertations
Journal articles
"Marco Polo Quits China". Harvard Journal of Asiatic Studies. 9 (1): 51. doi:10.2307/2717993. JSTOR 2717993.
"The 'Lost' Toledo Manuscript of Marco Polo". Speculum. 12 (1): 456–463. doi:10.2307/2849300. JSTOR 2849300. S2CID 164177617.
"Marco Polo in Manuscript: Say publicly Travels of the Devisement telly monde". Narrative Culture. 2 (2): 171–189. doi:10.13110/narrcult.2.2.0171. ISSN 2169-0235. JSTOR 10.13110/narrcult.2.2.0171.
Newspaper final web articles
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